[Author ] Yudha P. HESTON 1)
Abstract
Housing provision needs to take into account the impacts
of climate change, especially for the water supply sector. Communities in
settlements both in metropolitan and rural areas need to take adaptation action
from planning, operation, development and evaluation. Integration of adaptation
strategies needed to ensure public resources wisely invested. Research has done
to find the measures of contextual adaptation capacity gap areas, which need to
be improved. Community adaptation theory approach is used to identify the
factors related to housing conditions in adapting to climate change. Object of
the study group was divided into two levels, namely the individual and institution.
Research sites in two locations: Kupang which represent areas of water shortage
and Palembang which represent areas of water abundance. To improve the index
performance in Palembang that has abundant water, namely the development of
local wisdom. Current value of local wisdom in water management, has not been
optimized, so it needs to be administered using a socialization program or
local cultural context. Also required the technology implementation to solve
water shortages in times of flooding along Musi river. Optimizing
community-based programs benefits can be done by way of managing pipelines to
homes. Provision of clean water access to sectors that have the potential to
increase revenue in Kupang, is one way of improving index performance. Need to
ensure the quality, quantity, continuity of water services strategic sectors
such as trade, hotel, restaurant and industry. Information dissemination needs
to be done to improve performance readiness index. In addition it is necessary
to provide guidance to company, which runs a water refill business.
Keywords: drinking
water, index, adaptation
1.
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia has a
vulnerability to climate change disaster. Based on Indosaster study results, still
Indonesia is not ready to deal with large and medium -scale disasters (Lassa. J
, 2006). Another result in the study, state that climate change could trigger
climate instability and lead to emergence floods, droughts, cyclones,
landslides threat. The threat needs disaster management efforts.
Climate
variability and change phenomenon as global warming result, to be one of the
most important challenge today (Surmaini , 2010). Anthropogenic factors,
especially industrial rapid increase activities have significantly triggered
global warming incident. Climate change may have an impact on frequency and
intensity increase in the of extreme weather events, changing rainfall patterns,
rising temperatures and sea levels .
Climate change is
a long process and has high complexity nature, making it difficult to predict
precisely. Adaptation effort is a necessary thing, because climate that change
is difficult to return to the initial condition. Global climate change scale
need to be transformed on local context , associated with economic, social,
political, geographic and local environment response. Vulnerability and
adaptive conditions also needs to be translated in local context. Vulnerability
and adaptive capacity local context obtained from socio - ecological
relationships, level of income, completion patterns, infrastructure,
ecosystems, health, gender, political participation and individual habits.
Climate change adaptation
is divided into three groups (Klein, et.al , 1997 in Puspita , N , 2010)that
is: level of strategy, populations and individuals. Strategy level related to climate
change regulations development and implementation. At the population level,
adaptation purpose is to protect or prevent. At the individual level,
adaptation purpose is at behavioral adjustments that aims to resolve the hazard
exposure. Adaptive capacity assessment can be done by calculating urban
disaster adaptive capacity. The higher village adaptive capacity, more
resistant in face of disaster.
Adaptability based
on research (Effendi, 2012) is equal with knowledge, public education and
social welfare level. Community can have good adaptability when having good
welfare levels. Knowledge and wellfare levels of community can raise health awareness.
Provision of
drinking water management related to climate change, can be seen as a form of
institutional services to public , where vulnerability variable as ideal service
standards compared with achievements of existing services .
Problem
Based on introduction,
this research has done to address the following issues: How is vulnerability
indicators in adaptive capacity index, of water sector climate change
preparedness performance gap?
Purpose and Benefits
The first study purpose
is to find determinant factor of capacity gaps related to climate change
adaptation, community and water sector. Second, is to make comparison
formulation of water sector climate change vulnerability index, which consist of
sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity factor in Palembang and Kupang.
Benefits of research
is to provide stakeholders strategic efforts, at sociological implications of water
sector climate change, optimal adaptation measures that can be prioritized for
communities, facing water problems due to climate change.
Research Design
Quantitative
approach is used to provide an factors related overview to climate change vulnerability
and adaptive capacity, for public in water sector. This Approach also used to
determine ratio between region with a history of abundant water (Palembang)
compared with areas with a history of water lack (Kupang).
The study was
conducted by looking at the vulnerability gap performance indicators, for adaptive
capacity readiness index, to community drinking water sector climate change. This
is necessary, in order to improve water service efforts, climate change-related
research sites.
Qualitative
methods based on interviews with stakeholders in research location, is used to
explain the phenomenon that appears in quantitative research.
2.
LITERATURE REVIEW
(Pasaribu, 2008) The increase of CO2 concentration
in atmosphere which causes greenhouse gasses
effect, has increased the earth average temperature. This temperature increase
causes wind patterns changes, ocean and lake water evaporation, which then causes
pattern and intensity changes of rainfall. Climate change could have a negative
impact on global economy. The negative impact of climate change is mainly felt
by developing countries.
Research related to climate change vulnerability
as stated Turner et al. (2003) in (A.Tahir, 2009) explains that vulnerability (V) is overlay function of exposure (E), sensitivity (S), and adaptive capacity (AC),
and expressed in mathematical form by Metzger et al., (2006 ) as follows: V = f ( E , S , AC ) ...........( 1 )
Based on field research (Balai Litbang Sosekling Bidang
Permukiman in 2012) with the mathematical formulation described vulnerability
Index (V = f S, E, AC) is as follows :
With a
description of each variable, the variable S is defined as follows:
S= 50 PrA
+ 37,9 KP + 12,1 M...........( 2 )
Where, PRA: daily behaviour water usage, KP: programs agreement and clean
water support policies, M: clean water benefits.
Variable E is defined as follows
:
E= 50 PAL + 50 PeAL...........( 3 )
Where, PAL: water use in scarce season (individual) , PeAL: water management
in scarce season water (community)
AC variable
defined as follows :
AC= 16,67 Pt +
16,93 Ps + 16,4 PI + 9,4 J + 8,22 KI + 8,16 C + 7,66 KL + 11,83 CAP + 4,73 P...........( 4 )
Where, Pt: Knowledge, Ps: Perception, Pl: Behavior, J: Networking , KI: information
availability of, C: channel, KL: Local knowledge, CAP: community action plan,
P: Leadership.
Rating score each parameter, using sources Arctic Water Resource
Vulnerability Index, divided into 3 categories:
Table 1. Scale Parameter
|
Parameter
|
Size
|
|
High Vulnerable
|
0,00 – 0,33
|
|
Moderate Vulnerable
|
0,34 – 0,66
|
|
High Resilient
|
0,67 – 1,00
|
3.
METHODology
The study was conducted by using basic theory
related to incorporation of community preparedness and vulnerability to climate
change. Related readiness group theory divides the population into 3 levels,
namely the individual, community and institution. Theory of climate change
-related vulnerability indicator group divided into 3 parts, namely adaptive
capacity, exposure and sensitivity.
Gap analysis is needed here to describe the gap between
attribute performance with the attributes expectation. Attributes measured in vulnerability
assessment compared with ideal value to ideal service limit.
Location and Research Period
Indexes related explanations tracked by using
quantitative and qualitative research, with questionnaires and conducted
interviews to several key stakeholders. They which have the information availability
is considered sufficient to explain related indices phenomena.
The research was conducted in February to November of
2012, in Palembang (Seberang Ulu 1, which consists of three villages : ¾, 15
and 5 Ulu), and in Kupang (Kelapa Lima district, which consists of three villages:
Oesapa , West Oesapa, and Lasiana).
Palembang is provincial capital, largest city and
economic hub of social activity in South Sumatra. Its area is of 400.61 km2.
Topography of Palembang, mostly lowlands with an average altitude of 4-12
meters above sea level, with a composition of 48 % of land that is not
waterlogged, flooded land 15 % and 35 % seasonally waterlogged soils
continuously throughout the season. Seberang Ulu and Seberang Ilir has a
different related topography character. Seberang Ulu region generally have
relatively flat topography and partly with the original soil under the surface
of maximum tidal river Musi. Across the region Seberang Ilir topography
variation from 4m to 20m height above sea level which consists of valleys and
steep topography there. Initial river function
in Palembang is as a transportation means, but now it is experiencing changes
as a function of drainage and flood control.
Clean water for Palembang people mostly provided by
PDAM Tirta Musi and others utilize surface water such as river water, pond or swamp.
Palembang city resident who served with clean water increased from 43.18 % (
2003) to ± 80 % (2009 ) as many as 1,073,267 people, with a target service in
2012, is expected to serve 95 % of Palembang population.
Kupang city has an area of 165.3 km2 consists of 6
districts. Topography Kupang is the highest area above sea level in the south
100-350 meters. While the lowest area above sea level on the northern slope of
0-50 meters with a 15 percent rate. The city population of Kupang (2012) is 336
239 inhabitants. With a population density of 2,034 per km2. Description and source
of household Drinking Water in 2010 which has its own drinking water facilities
by 49.98 percent .
Table 2. ParameterPercentage of Households by
Drinking Water Facilities
|
Drinking Water Facilities
|
%
|
|
Private
|
49,98
|
|
Community
|
45,93
|
|
Public
|
3.84
|
|
Not available
|
0,25
|
|
Total
|
100,00
|
Sources: Welfare
Indicators Kupang
Table 3. Percentage of Households by Source of Drinking Water
|
Drinking water resources
|
%
|
|
Bottled water
|
10,22
|
|
Water refill
|
3,98
|
|
piped meter
|
42,24
|
|
Retail tap
|
4,92
|
|
pump
|
2,97
|
|
Protected wells
|
22,62
|
|
Not Shielded wells
|
7,15
|
|
Shielded Springs
|
0,87
|
|
Not Shielded Springs
|
0,87
|
|
Others
|
4,16
|
|
Total
|
100,00
|
Sources: Welfare
Indicators Kupang
Data Collecting
Data was collected
through questionnaires. Questionnaires distributed to a number of respondents
to determine samples number required (representation of a population that will
be mapped). Determination of samples number should consider homogeneity and heterogeneity
of population.
Literature study was done by collecting a variety of
secondary data from various sources (books , journals, magazines, maps,
newspapers, documents, research reports, data sources from the internet, etc.).
In-depth interviews were conducted in a quiet,
familiar situations. Interviews can be started from the things that light
(introduction), insensitive, and not necessarily sequentially so that the informant
did not mind answering.
Field observations made through direct observation
to be mapped. In implementing field observations accompanied by representatives
from the community along with a professional master of environmental management.
Population
Quantitative research: population to determine the
community readiness represented by the board of RT, RW and administrators group
in society. With justification that they are the main object and subject, in
the implementation of adaptation models, that can act as driving force for all
citizens in the region. The population has also seen a lot of information ,
in-depth strategic and social and cultural processes that occur in a community,
about the phenomenon under study. Qualitative research: to determine the
readiness of the population represented by the head of the district, the board
of NGOs working in the field of water.
Samples
Questioner divided into two
types of community leaders and family heads .1 ) Criteria for selecting
community leaders in the RT and RW defined by the following inclusion criteria,
ie:
( a. ) The
Board region at RT until RW with a minimum term of 1 year
( b. )
Residing in the research area and are willing to be the research subject.
( c. ) At
least 20 years old.
Samples amount
that meet the criteria for inclusion in the study, were 30 people in each area.
2 ) The criteria for selecting individual
inclusion criteria, namely :
( a. ) One
of the family members who are considered to represent
( d. )
Residing in the research area and are willing to be the research object.
( b. ) At
least 20 years old.
Samples amount using the following formula (Sastorasmoro and Ismael, 2004
in Balai, 2012).
Description
:
( a. ) P =
proportion of searched state: socio-economic involvement of 76.3 % for
community participation in water resources management (Syahrani , et al 2004 in
Balai 2012)
( b. ) d =
desired level of absolute accuracy ( 0.07 )
( c. ) α =
level of significance ( 0.05 )
( d. ) Q = (
1 - P ) , so if P = 1-.763 = 0.237
Based on the
above provisions , then the sample size in this study was: 142 people per city.
Qualitative research to explain the quantitative
figures, does not concern on the number of samples, informants can be a little
or lot depending on whether appropriate key informants as well as the diversity
and phenomenon complexity of study. In collecting the data, the number of
samples used is the range between 4-10 informants to see if the data is already
saturated. if the sample is less than 10 has reached the saturation point, researchers
stop sample search. With regard data fulfill and adjusted to the researchers ability
( Moleong, 2004 ).
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed by compiling into the matrix, index
found the actual number of questionnaires. This was followed by finding the
difference between ideal boundary services minus the actual numerical values.
Actual figures inserted into percentage figures for ease of analysis. Wanted percentage
difference between ideal service reduced the actual number percentage. Index:
I=
...........(
6 )
Measurement of index
formula ( IWMI , 2009)
The next step is to formulate a (3) priority variable,
and (3) support variables in each study site . Variables found the explanation sought
through qualitative research, both from the literature as well as primary data
sources such as interviews.
Qualitative analysis is done by developing a
quantitative research ideographic related phenomena and social reality.
Development of the theory of empiri formed through various phenomena or cases
studied. The resulting theory will gain a strong foothold on reality and is
contextual.
4.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Actual figures obtained from the indicator with
3-15 questions in the questionnaire , with the following indicator explanation.
Ø
Knowledge: the
ability of respondents to answer everything about community readiness in
addressing availabilty changes in water resources due to climate change.
Ø
Perception:
support respondent to give a positive or negative response to community
readiness in addressing availability changes of water resources due to climate
change
Ø
Behavior: The public
habit or act in everyday life related to community readiness, to face change problems
in water resources due to climate change. It will be assessed from the behavior
of people in water retrench for daily needs.
Ø
Conduct daily water
use: The habit or act of public in everyday life related to community readiness
in use of water to prevent water shortages occurrence.
Ø
Conduct water use
season when water is scarce: the habit or act of family members related to
family preparedness in face of scarce water season.
Ø
water use
behavior: the behavior or actions related to water use in family life to
improve socio- economic status .
Ø
Local Wisdom: all
forms of knowledge, belief, understanding, or insight as well as custom or
ethics that guide human behavior in conserving water resources .
Ø
Water management
in water-scarce season: habits or actions related to community preparedness in
face of scarce water season .
Ø
Community
involvement in organizations: community participation in project provision of
clean water and sanitation services .
Ø
Leadership: the
art of activity or influence others to cooperate based on person's ability to
guide others in achieving desired goals of the group.
Ø
The existence of
organizations: the organization presence in a special area set up to regulate water
availability in community .
Ø
Network: the efforts
of an institution in community to establish cooperative relationships with
other agencies.
Ø
Availability of
information: The efforts of an institution to obtain information related to
provision of clean water.
Ø
Channel
Communications: Media availability is facilitated by an institution engaged in
provision of clean water in order for a community to deliver clean water issues
in the region.
Ø
Agreements
Program and Policy Support: The existence of a formula and related activities
deal with a source of clean water agencies.
Ø
Benefits: The
availability of clean water facilities on community created by an agency.
Ø
Answers to
indicators other than education , income and employment converted to numbers
range from 0 to 100 to facilitate the analysis process . The results can be
seen in the table 4, the figures were converted into percentage in accordance
with the primary data.
Table
4. Actual Figure
|
No
|
Indicator
|
Palembang
|
Kupang
|
%
Palembang
|
%
Kupang
|
|
Adaptive
capacity (AC)
|
|||||
|
1
|
Education
|
3,35
|
3,77
|
55,46
|
62,42
|
|
2
|
Income
|
2.304.031
|
2.354.575
|
77,97
|
79,68
|
|
3
|
Job
|
4,44
|
4,24
|
55,41
|
52,91
|
|
4
|
Knowledge
|
65,56
|
63,91
|
63,19
|
61,60
|
|
5
|
Behaviour
|
61,67
|
67,32
|
60,41
|
65,95
|
|
6
|
Local
wisdom
|
0
|
67,78
|
0,00
|
74,31
|
|
7
|
Community
involvement
|
23,33
|
95
|
18,46
|
75,17
|
|
8
|
Leadership
|
63
|
78,33
|
54,07
|
67,23
|
|
9
|
Network
|
30
|
66,77
|
29,70
|
66,10
|
|
10
|
Information
availability
|
50
|
61,09
|
38,52
|
47,06
|
|
11
|
Channel
|
40
|
71,43
|
33,77
|
60,31
|
|
12
|
Organization availability
|
20
|
91,2
|
15,36
|
70,06
|
|
Exposure (E)
|
|
|
|||
|
14
|
Water shortage management at individual level
|
48,35
|
47,31
|
68,06
|
66,60
|
|
15
|
Water shortage management at
territorial level
|
0
|
47,77
|
0,00
|
50,94
|
|
Sensitivity (S)
|
|
|
|||
|
17
|
Daily water use behaviour
|
66
|
60
|
78,92
|
71,75
|
|
18
|
Program
agreement
|
51,21
|
71,34
|
40,83
|
56,88
|
|
19
|
Benefit
|
0
|
62,5
|
0,00
|
67,09
|
Ideal number minus ideal limit equal with the gap
value (Table 4).
Table
4. Gap
|
No
|
Indicator
|
Ideal level
|
Palembang
|
Kupang
|
% Palembang
|
% Kupang
|
|
Adaptive
capacity (AC)
|
||||||
|
1
|
Education
|
4,53
|
2,69
|
2,27
|
44,54
|
37,58
|
|
2
|
Income
|
2.216.341
|
651.090,33
|
600.546,33
|
22,03
|
20,32
|
|
3
|
Job
|
6,01
|
3,57
|
3,77
|
44,59
|
47,09
|
|
4
|
Knowledge
|
77,81
|
38,19
|
39,84
|
36,81
|
38,40
|
|
5
|
Behaviour
|
76,56
|
40,41
|
34,76
|
39,59
|
34,05
|
|
6
|
Local
wisdom
|
68,41
|
91,21
|
23,43
|
100,00
|
25,69
|
|
7
|
Community
involvement
|
94,78
|
103,04
|
31,37
|
81,54
|
24,83
|
|
8
|
Leadership
|
87,38
|
53,51
|
38,18
|
45,93
|
32,77
|
|
9
|
Network
|
75,76
|
71,01tas
|
34,24
|
70,30
|
33,90
|
|
10
|
Information
availability
|
97,36
|
79,81
|
68,72
|
61,48
|
52,94
|
|
11
|
Channel
|
88,83
|
78,44
|
47,01
|
66,23
|
39,69
|
|
12
|
Organization availability
|
97,63
|
110,17
|
38,97
|
84,64
|
29,94
|
|
Exposure (E)
|
|
|
|
|||
|
14
|
Water shortage management at individual level
|
53,28
|
22,69
|
23,73
|
31,94
|
33,40
|
|
15
|
Water shortage management at
territorial level
|
70,33
|
93,77
|
46,00
|
100,00
|
49,06
|
|
Sensitivity (S)
|
|
|
|
|||
|
17
|
Daily water use behaviour
|
62,72
|
17,63
|
23,63
|
21,08
|
28,25
|
|
18
|
Program
agreement
|
94,07
|
74,22
|
54,09
|
59,17
|
43,12
|
|
19
|
Benefit
|
69,87
|
93,16
|
30,66
|
100,00
|
32,91
|
From the
results of a calculation in Palembang can be seen that there are three
indicators that need to get attention, in order to services improve, namely:
local knowledge, management of scarce water season, and program existence benefits.
While the next 3 indicators that can be considered for further development is
availability of relevant organizations, community involvement, and networking.
From the
results of a calculation in Kupang can be seen that there are three indicators
that need to get attention, in order to service improve that is related to:
employment, availability of information, the management of scarce water season.
3 indicators for development that can be considered further in Kupang related
to program agreement, channel, and knowledge.
Gap from the ideal limit will get the result
as in grafik 1 and 2.
Discussion
Palembang
(6) Local wisdom (Diem, A. , 2012)
Local wisdom of wood stage housing form, which is designed to
be able to adapt geographical conditions swampy wet and hot temperatures. The
building houses a stage adaptation of the rain and tide conditions, especially
in the region around the river. Home made form high in anticipation of the hot
temperatures. Selected wood material resistant to water immersion. Trust is the
number of steps, showing a desire to get a blessing for the family, because
there is a belief if an even number of stairs then residents will get a lot of
trouble. Number of steps in a terrace house also shows social class, who were
divided into three groups. The higher steps number, more higher class that can
be assembled in it. Ventilation in every home made a lot, and each home
prepared crock in front of house to keep
clean water, which is found in households in Palembang. This shows the
readiness of citizens to be able to have their own bin (not together) for each
household. Densely populated settlements on riverbanks, using direct water to
wash clothes, dishes and bathing. The main water source community around the
river is flowing river water.
(15) Water shortage management
at territorial level
Water problems in some areas
impassable Musi river have ebb and flow, if tide is a lot than trash left on
riverbank. Plus, if there was a flood threatens the existence of the house
residents (Musi River Overflowing Again Compass - March 1, 2006 ). Although
relatively raw water is available both in dry and rainy season.
Water they obtained in several ways, namely by buying
from water vendors, including refill water, collect water and carry out simple
processing. Efforts to overcome clean water scarcity can be proved by the discovery
of drums and jars on patio citizens, namely rain still expected to meet needs
of clean water. When it rained, water is murky Musi precipitated with alum.
(19) Benefit
Management and improvement of water quality from taps
is done by adding the house conection (SR) and main channel of taps. Most
people already have a house connection each of taps. However, there are areas
which are found also got SANIMAS program and use water collectively.
Program construction of public facilities such as
toilets plus of course SANIMAS built on land owned by the Palembang. Informal
sector work, MCK SANIMAS, the PNPM, help from pawnshops for road and bridge
capital.
Kupang
(3) Job
When observed by Gross Regional Domestic Product in
2011, which shows most of the revenues obtained from Kupang city services
sector, trade, hotels and restaurants, where these sectors are in need of
drinking water clean security. In water supply in Kupang can not rely on taps,
to meet adequacy, through a variety of ways, namely: buy water tanks, water
gallons or using borehole. To meet the water needs of corporate offices,
hotels, and a domestic house hold requirements, many of which use tank water
consumption.
|
SECTOR
|
Year
|
|
|
2011
|
||
|
RUPIAH (million)
|
%
|
|
|
Agriculture
|
104.416
|
4,2
|
|
Mining
|
36.975
|
1,49
|
|
Processing industry
|
66.584
|
2,68
|
|
Electricity and water supply
|
21.491
|
0,86
|
|
Building
|
259.578
|
10,44
|
|
Trade, hotel, restaurant
|
714.117
|
28,72
|
|
Transportation / communication
|
397.788
|
16
|
|
Bank / finance
|
143.304
|
5,76
|
|
Service
|
742.506
|
29,86
|
|
TOTAL
|
2.486.759
|
100
|
(10) Information Availability
As part of
water provision, made from the institution to deliver information
services provider to consumers, including information from the government to
the public. Some of the information that can be conveyed related programs: PDAM
through the piping system , but still about 10 % are using a direct connection
to the house. KSM PAMSIMAS, using a tank filled water flow taps and boreholes.
This work is done so that there is reduction in cost to meet the needs of the
community water supply so that the load can be minimized. KSM PAMSIMAS success
in community-based water supply programs such as PNPM - P2KP that include clean
water issues in the environmental aspects , through the use of the tank system
with piping method SR (House Connection). Management of the water tank. Source
water obtained from wells drilled tank which is then run through a private
business. Ownership of water sources as a privately owned gold fields for the
local community and is a very profitable business. Related information management
boreholes privately owned. Management of water gallons for drinking water, but
in quality, raw water , the tools used and the process must not be ascertained
in accordance with health standards.
(15)Water shortage management at territorial level
Water crisis in Kupang
can occur throughout the year, but when dry season decrease water flow reaches
30 % on sources of spring water, such as rivers, wells, ponds, etc. , while the
rainy season when water is quite abundant even frequent flooding due to
conditions geographical and soil structure is not solid and hollow, so that
water in highlands and can not be saved down low flatness and then thrown into
the sea but the season when water quality has decreased.
5.
CONCLUSION
To improve the
index performance in Palembang that has abundant water, namely the development
of local wisdom. Current value of local wisdom in water management, has not
been optimized, so it needs to be administered using a socialization program or
local cultural context. Also required the technology implementation to solve
water shortages in times of flooding along Musi river. Optimizing
community-based programs benefits can be done by way of managing pipelines to
homes.
Provision of clean
water access to sectors that have the potential to increase revenue in Kupang,
is one way of improving index performance. Need to ensure the quality,
quantity, continuity of water services strategic sectors such as trade, hotel,
restaurant and industry. Information dissemination needs to be done to improve
performance readiness index. In addition it is necessary to provide guidance to
company, which runs a water refill business.
6.
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